· Drought Stress - Mitigation

Managing the Dryland Crop Environment

Modern dryland farming is a system of low inputs combined with soil and water conservation practices and risk reducing strategies. The system can be sustainable if practiced properly. Water shortage is the main limiting factor, but successful dryland systems also maintain reasonable practices to eliminate other limiting factors (poor nutrient status, weeds, biotic stresses, etc'), which can reduce the efficiency by which the crop uses the limited moisture. However, as water shortage a priori dictates a limit on yield, all other inputs must be carefully adjusted downwards to fit the expected low economic return. Except for subsistence agriculture, economical dryland farming depends on a large area per farmer.

The most advanced systems have been developed in the Great Plains of the USA, Canada and Australia, even though traditional systems employed in Asia and the Middle East also offer important insights. In the USA, the lesson learned during the "dustbowl" years in the early 1900's prompted extensive legistration and investments in developing sustainable dryland farming systems. These systems and the associated technological progress such as plant breeding, brought about an increase in mean winter wheat yield from 0.5 ton ha^-2 in 1930 to about 2 ton ha^-2 in 1980. In Southern Australia the "ley farmimg" system was developed in the 1920's and adopted widely in the late 1940's. The system involves a rotation between a self-seeding legume grown for several years and wheat. The farmer grows wheat and raises sheep while the legume serves to sustain soil fertility (mainly nitrogen). This system has become less popular in recent years with the increase in economic pressures and other considerations.

The lesson learned from the American and Australian experience is that the development of a sustainable dryland farming system involves the following principles, not necessarily in their order of importance:

1. Improved soil and water conservation practices and the associated tillage systems.

2. Optimization of the fit between crop growth cycle and the available moisture.

3. Weed control

4. Soil fertility management.

5. Optimized plant population density and spatial arrangement of plants with respect to the expected soil moisture regime.

6. Control of soil biotic stress factors that reduce root development.

7. Improved forage/livestock/grains integration and rotation.

8. Avoidance of mono cropping and the diversification of farming.

9. The increase of precipitation by cloud seeding, as an ongoing experiment.

Some of the above principles of the dryland farming system constitute general agronomic knowledge, which can be explored in our Web Resources page as well as in standard agronomy textbooks and other publications (e.g. Drought Management of Farmland - by Joan Sydney Whitmore, 2000, 360 pp., Springer, SBN 0792359984). Here only several topics will be touched upon.

Soil and water conservation

Fallow and conservation tillage

The fallow system is designed to conserve soil moisture from one season to another or from one year to the other, depending on climate and crop. Increasing storage of soil moisture by the fallow system with or without conservation tillage is standard agricultural practice in dryland farming. The benefit of fallow and conservation tillage in terms of increasing available soil moisture to the crop depends on soil water-holding capacity, climate, topography and management practices. Fallow efficiency, in terms of percent increase in soil moisture availability to the crop measured at planting date normally ranges from about 5% to 30%. While these amounts are not impressive they can make a difference between crop failure and success. The fallow carries additional benefits such as improved soil nutrients availability and the eradication of certain soil-born pests, such as nematodes.

Conservation tillage involves the principle of minimized tillage operations to conserve soil structure and to maintain ground cover by mulch, such as stubble. These practices reduce water runoff and increase soil infiltration. Conservation tillage has become the cornerstone of dryland systems in certain regions of the USA, Canada and other regions. It has been re-demonstrated in dryland wheat experiments carried out in Southern Israel (#4407). While the benefits of conservation tillage are well-documented it has also been noted that crop residues under this system may promote certain crop diseases.

In certain soils deep tillage was found very useful to improve soil moisture storage, especially when hard soils or hardpans are a problem. This is an expensive operation that cannot be deployed regularly in dryland farming.

For further online information on dryland farming and its research visit the following sites and the links therein:

§ Soil and Water conservation in Semi Arid Areas – (FAO Manual, 1987)

§ USDA-ARS Bushland Texas Experiment Station – dedicated to conservation research

§ Soil, water and reclamation publications --From Alberta, Canada

Furrow dikes and Soil pitting

These techniques constitute a field surface tillage manipulation to minimize runoff away from the field.

Furrow dikes are furrows, which are divided into short basins by small dikes (see right side photograph). This is achieved by special equipment . The system is very amenable to row crops such as cotton, corn and sorghum and it can be integrated with or without furrow irrigation. It is generally considered effective for increasing rainfall capture and raising dryland yield where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 800 mm.

Soil pitting (left side photograph) involves the formation of small depressions at close proximity to reduce runoff from rainstorms. The crop is planted over this modified surface. Experiments performed with wheat in nine farmer demonstration plots in Southern Israel during 1988 showed that pitting increased yield by an average of 7.5% at a mean yield of 3.25 ton/ha. Unlike furrow dikes these system is not limited to row crops.

Water harvesting/spreading

This is a broad term to describe various methods to collect runoff from large contributing areas and concentrate it for use in smaller crop area. This is an ancient practice already adopted by Nabatian desert settlements in the Middle East several centuries A.D. Presently, the basic water harvesting systems involve an external contributing area to induce runoff. This area is physically or chemically treated for maximizing runoff. The water is diverted into a receiving area comprising of cultivated plots, individual trees or small terraces. The contributing area may lie in the agricultural field (a system sometimes referred to as "conservation bench terrace") or outside the field in the natural watershed system. The size ratio between the contributing and the receiving areas is determined by the expected rainfall events, crop water requirements, soil characteristics and topography. The resulting yield increase in the receiving (crop) area is proportional to the amount of water gained in that area.

For more detailed information see ‘Water Harvesting’, and Runoff Farming.

Diversification of farming

Diversification of farming is an ancient but an effective approach to reduce the risk associated with farming in unpredictable environments. Reduced diversification to the extent of mono-cropping is possible only if a high level of control is possible over the crop environmental conditions. Such control method (irrigation, chemical pest control, etc’) are among the main reasons for the more recent environmental quality problems found to be associated with mono-cropping.

Diversification of cropping to reduce risk is especially important under dryland conditions. It is achieved on several levels, as described by Pandey et al (#4194) for the case of traditional rain-fed rice in Eastern India.

1. Spatial diversification of fields. The farmer’s land is divided into several fields or plots which may differ in their topography, soil and hydraulic properties. Some fields may be prone to flooding while others do not hold water. Certain fields may be on a warmer slope while others on a cooler one. The different field conditions allow to achieve a better fit between the crop and the environment and to reduce the general probability of stress affecting the farmer.

2. Crop diversification is an important feature of traditional farming. It takes an advantage of the generally low correlation between crops in performance when grown in a single stress environment. Crops differ in their response to a given environment and this difference is used to reduce the risk associated with growing one crop. “Mixed cropping” or “intercropping” is an example of a traditional and a successful approach to crop diversification on a single parcel of land, where two or more crops are grown together in various possible configurations. If for some reason only one crop is grown, a certain (though lower) level of risk reduction can be achieved by varietal diversification. Planting of several crop varieties offer a better probability for reducing loss due to environmental stress, as compared with growing one variety only. For environmental stress conditions varietal diversification is based mainly on differential phenology, primarily flowering date. A typical example is a transient frost or heat wave that is likely to occur around flowering time of the specific crop. Damage reduction can be achieved when the crop is sown to several varieties of different flowering dates.

3. Temporal diversification may achieve the same result as varietal diversification, when phenology is concerned. The purpose of setting a distinct planting date is to optimize crop development with respect to seasonal climate, mainly rainfall in rain-fed agriculture. Ideally the crop is planted at the beginning of the rainy season, rainfall peaks when crop evapotranspiration peaks and it terminates just before harvest time. When such conditions are reasonable predictable, planting date can be set to optimize production. Where the timing of rainfall is very unpredictable, adopting more than one planting date for the given crop can reduce the risk involved with untimely rainfall and a given planting date.

Cloud seeding

Cloud seeding is a form of weather modification attempt. The process of cloud seeding involves deposition of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) into a specific region of the cloud. Seeding may be achieved from above or through the clouds by aircraft, and from below where CCN are carried into the cloud by updrafts. With either method, the CCN must reach the super cooled cloud region, where water molecules remain unfrozen at temperatures below ⁰C.

Experiments in cloud seeding have been performed for the last 50 years. The results and benefits of this practice are still under debate.

Information is available in the report on 'Weather Modification by Cloud Seeding -A Status Report 1989-1997 by William R. Cotton, Colorado State University; and at the Oklahoma Weather Modification Demonstration Program .

MITIGATION OF DROUGHT STRESS BY CROP PLANT RESISTANCE

The nature of Drought Resistance

Drought Resistance and Crop Yield

Crop plant breeding for drought resistance has long been part of the breeding process in most crops that have been or are being grown under dryland conditions. During the period of the pre-scientific agriculture the genetic improvement of plant adaptation to dry conditions was simply attained by repeatedly selecting plants that appeared to do well when drought stress occurred. As a result of many generations of selection by generations of farmers we now encounter such materials, which are defined as “landraces” of the crop. Such landraces were shown to posses distinct drought resistance traits. Later, as scientific agriculture developed and following the emergence of Mendelian genetics, elaborate biometrical and statistical methods for quantitative genetics analysis were developed to enable selection for yield stability. An important factor of yield stability is coping with drought and other abiotic plant stresses. Subsequently, yield-based selection programs were augmented by observing plants under carefully managed stress environments, followed by the development of physiological selection criteria for stress resistance. More recently, molecular methods, such as marker-assisted selection are being adopted to facilitate more efficient selection for distinct components of stress resistance. Finally, biotechnology is experimenting with genetic transformation, which has not yet been applied as a solution to breeding for drought resistance. Some applications may be forthcoming in the private seed business sector.

Looking at crop drought resistance from a botanical perspective it must be realized at the onset that there is a vast difference between drought resistance in natural vegetation and in crop plants. Natural vegetation has evolved to conserve the species. Henceforth, plant survival and the capacity to produce at least one seed per life cycle despite stress is the most powerful component of natural selection. On the other hand, drought resistance in modern agriculture requires sustaining economically viable plant production despite stress. Crop survival is of a lesser consequence to economical farming. On the other hand, plant survival can be a critical factor in subsistence agriculture, where the ability of a crop to survive drought and produce some yield at all may translate into a difference between famine and livelihood. Breeding for drought resistance is therefore very tightly linked to the target environment of the crop, not only with respect to its physical and chemical features but also its social grounds. The recent developments in GIS technology are extremely important as a tool for defining a target environment for the breeding program. GIS has been discussed under impact of stress above.

John B. Passioura’s (#6030) general description of yield and water-use is widely accepted by agronomists. It is based on the initial model of C.T. de Wit and in its simple form it can be expressed as:

Yield = T x WUE x HI,

Where, T= total seasonal crop transpiration, WUE= crop water-use efficiency and HI= crop harvest index (the ratio of economic yield to total aboveground biomass). T is a component of ET (crop evapotranspiration), where E denotes direct evaporation from the soil.

It can be immediately seen that yield is proportional to crop water-use. The older concept of formulating drought resistance by designing a plant that is “water-saving” will not work for most crop environments. Moderated water-use by design can be important in systems where the crop grows mostly on pre-seasonal stored soil moisture. Here, fitting crop-water use to the limited available seasonal water supply is crucial.

Text Box: Fig. 7. The association between yield and total seasonal precipitation for 3 different wheat cultivars.

Generally, crops must use water under stress in order to sustain yield. Drought resistance is a finite trait. Life cannot be sustained without water. Drought resistance in modern farming is based on the plant ability to obtain water or to use water efficiently, when water is limited by drought.

A most preoccupying issue for the dryland crop breeder, and not only the beginner, is the formulation of a plant ideotype for the target environment addressed by his program. The ideotype is a detailed morphological, physiological, developmental and conceptual description of the desirable plant type. The construction of an ideotype can be based on accumulated knowledge, consultation, biased opinion and even intuition. Lately, serious attempts are made at adopting crop growth simulation models to assist in developing a breeding ideotype. The formulation of an appropriate and relevant ideotype for a drought target environment is probably the most crucial component of planning a breeding effort for improved drought resistance. It is hoped that this contribution will help to understand what is involved in formulating a drought resistant ideotype and hopefully assist in applying such knowledge to practice.

In order to further understand what constitutes drought resistance in terms of crop production, one should closely examine how different cultivars may respond to changing moisture availability (Fig.7).

Wheat cultivar C is different from A and B in that it has a lower yield potential (yield at high moisture conditions) but as moisture becoming deficient C turns out to be superior to A and B. In terms of yield, C may be defined as drought resistant while cultivars A and B are of high yield potential but are relatively drought susceptible. The “crossover” where the advantage of C over A and B under stress begins to be expressed is at about 300 mm or at a yield level of about 300 g m-². Hence, drought resistance of C is expressed only when stress is sever (<300 mm). Still, it is extremely important to realize that the high yielding cultivars A and B are superior to the drought resistant C when drought stress is moderate (e.g. at 400 to 500 mm). A high yield potential therefore ascribes an advantage under moderate stress conditions. On the other hand Fig.7 seems to indicate that drought resistant wheat cultivars have lower yield potential, which in a sense is a penalty for drought resistance. This point will be discussed later.

As discussed above under the “Impact of Stress”, moisture stress signals certain stress responsive genes, which are responsible for a chain of events, expressed at various levels of plant organization. It has been assumed almost axiomatically that stress responsive genes are involved in adaptation; henceforth that they are ‘stress adaptive’. It was later realized that not every stress responsive gene is necessarily adaptive in terms of drought resistance or survival.

Irrespective of the role and function of stress adaptive genes in plant drought resistance, it should be recognized that not only stress adaptive genes condition plant performance under drought stress. Genes that are expressed irrespective of the environment also condition plant function and performance under stress. These genes are expressed constitutively. For example, genes conditioning early flowering are basically expressed in any environment. Their expression is not conditioned by stress. Early flowering may have a critical role in plant response to and performance under stress (see below). Constitutive plant traits can be modified by stress, and the rate of modification can be considered to involve stress responsive elements. Using the above example, stress may cause one early variety to flower a little later than normal while another similarly early variety will not be affected by stress and will maintain its normal flowering time. The delay in flowering may be generally considered as un-desirable and an expression of drought susceptibility.

Plant Phenology

Short growth duration (generally defined by early flowering) constitutes an important attribute of ‘drought escape’, especially for conditions of a late-season drought stress (Fig.8). On the other hand, longer growth duration is often associated with high yield potential. Consequently, using drought escape as a solution may involve a cost in terms of reduced yield potential. This is serious, especially when the moisture environment is unpredictable and may vary to a large extent between years. The more predictable the environment is, the easier it becomes to optimise phenology. The unpredictability of the environment may reach a state where short growth duration is a drawback, especially in indeterminate plants that offer a potential for regrowth and productivity upon recovery. A longer growth duration in both determinate and indeterminate plants would improve the probability for regrowth upon recovery simply because, on the same calendar day, late-maturing genotypes are younger than early ones and younger plants recover better. The final decision on the optimum growth duration has, of course, to consider additional factors, such as late-season disease and insect pressure or periods of frost.

Early maturity lead to reduced, total seasonal evapotranspiration simply because of the shorter time in the field. However, as growth duration is genetically linked with leaf number, early genotypes have a small transpiring leaf-area index. Thus, early genotypes show reduced evapotranspiration during most growth stages, up to the point where a full ground cover is achieved. At most growth stages, root-length density and total root length per plant is generally greater in a late than in an early cultivar. This should be reflected in an advantage for the late genotype under conditions where extensive rooting is required.

A phenological trait specific to maize is the timing of anthesis with respect to silking, defined as anthesis-to-silking interval (ASI). Evidently a short interval is desirable whereas a large interval results in poor pollination. The maize program at CIMMYT dedicated many years of work to research the trait and explore its significance in tropical maize breeding for stress environments (#3347). Maize germplasm can vary for ASI irrespective of the effect of stress; a short ASI is a universally important trait for maize production. However, stress, and especially drought during the reproductive stage may extend ASI and thus reduce yield. Maize genotypes may vary in ASI under drought stress from few days up to around 60 days. The effect on yield of change in ASI between null and 10 days is exponential. Selection for short ASI under drought stress proved to be the most effective approach to improve drought resistance of tropical maize. QTLs (quantitative trait loci) controlling ASI were identified and marker-assisted selection is possible.

Different crop plants may advance (e.g. wheat) or delay (e.g. rice) their flowering when stress occurs before flowering. The rate of delay is a function of plant water deficit and probably also ABA signalling. The rate of change in flowering time under stress can be taken as an index of genotypic rate of stress in the field.

Plant development and size

Plant size as expressed mainly in terms of single plant leaf area or leaf area index (LAI) has a major control over water-use, as explain under Impact of Stress. Small plants and reduced leaf area are generally conducive to low productivity while they limit water use. Botanists have long recognized small plants bearing small leaves as typical ecotypes of xeric environments. While such plants withstand drought very well their growth rate and biomass are relatively low.

In the domain of plant breeding, cultivars developed for dryland conditions by selecting mainly for yield under such conditions often result in plants of moderate size and productivity. For example this can be seen in dryland temperate cereals, which tend to have moderate tillering. On the other hand researchers in the CSIRO Australia have concluded (#3903) that early plant (and seedling) vigour are important traits for dry conditions. The reason is in the rapid ground cover achieved and the subsequent decrease in water loss by direct soil evaporation at this stage. However, other benefits for seedling vigour were also noted, such as the nitrogen status of the plant (#7059).

As for other constitutive traits, irrespective of the genetic control of plant size, drought stress signals a reduction in leaf area to effectively reduce water use. Drought stress reduces the transpiring leaf area by leaf expansion inhibition, leaf wilting (such as leaf rolling in the cereals) and leaf death and abscission. While leaf desiccation is caused by dehydration, leaf growth inhibition and abscission can result at least partly from stress induced ABA accumulation.

The Root

The most important control of plant water status is with the root, whereas roots are the main engine for meeting transpirational demand. Two major dimensions describe the root: root depth and root-length density (Fig.9). The more practically important dimension for most breeding scenarios is root depth, which facilitate deep soil moisture extraction where such moisture is available. It is a primary component of drought resistance. The development of lateral roots at very shallow soil depth may have a role in capturing small amount of intermittent rainfall.

Text Box: Fig. 9. Left panel: hydropnically grown roots of two wheat cultivars differing in root length. Right panel: roots of two sorghum cultivars in soil in a root observation box, differing in root-length density. See “sorghum root growth”

Root depth in the cereals is generally associated with a small number of main thick axes. Such fibrous root system is often seen in upland rice, which has a deeper root system, in contrast to lowland rice with the shallower roots. The control of root growth is not only in the root. In the cereals, tillering is associated with production of new crown roots from each developing tiller. Such profuse rooting is at the expense of the growth of existing roots, deeper into soil. Hence, limited tillering in cereals and grasses has been repeatedly observed to be associated with relatively deeper root extension.

In certain soils a hardpan can limit deep root growth and the capacity for hardpan penetration by roots becomes a critical factor in drought resistance. The factors, which may support axial root force and hardpan penetration, are not known and most research in this area has been performed with seedlings only. In mature plants the penetration of hardpan by roots seems to be better in plants that constitutively develop fibrous and thick roots.

Many drought environments present a situation where rainfall is low and soil depth that contains moisture is permanently shallow. For example, in many of the drier Mediterranean wheat-growing regions the wetted soil depth of around 60-80 cm is shallower than the maximum root depth of wheat (>100 cm). Under such conditions a deep root is not an issue. Other plant factors may then become far more important in the control and use of the limited soil moisture, such as shoot developmental characteristics (e.g. leaf area development or growth duration), osmotic adjustment, leaf surface properties, etc.'

Another scenario of seasonal soil moisture status is where the crop is grown on stored soil moisture and there is little effective rainfall during the growing season. Under such conditions the main consideration is to manage seasonal soil moisture use such that sufficient moisture will remain for carrying the crop to maturity. It is to be expected that with the available moisture the crop might grow luxuriously leading to a large leaf area and an even greater water requirement towards the latter part of the season. Hence, short growth duration, small leaf area and perhaps a higher root hydraulic resistance can achieve the control of seasonal water use. The last option has been researched at the CSIRO Australia and an increase wheat root hydraulic resistance was effectively attained by selection for smaller xylem element diameter. It is not known whether this approach has found its way into actual application in wheat breeding

Whatever may be the constitutive form and function of roots, the environment can modify the root in a pronounced way. Offcourse, soil conditions in terms of topsoil moisture and deep soil hardness alter root growth and depth. Drought stress generally inhibit total root mass (while it can modify its distribution). Root-length density may locally increase in wet regions in the soil while it will decrease in the drying parts. As soil moisture deficit develop throughout the profile, the proportion of dry to wet soil increase so that the proportion of dead to live roots increase. There is hardly evidence to show that total root mass increase with drought stress. The shoot/root mass ratios consistently decrease under drought stress, which is a universal expression of adaptation. The ratio changes mainly due to the reduction in shoot mass.

The root system is highly dynamic and as long as it is not senesced or diseased it is capable of regrowth from meristems in the root axes and meristems in the root crown (in cereals and grasses). The renewal of root branching into wet soil immediately after rainfall is considered as an important factor in plant recovery from drought stress.

Plant Surface

Plant surface structure, form and composition carry a major impact on the plant interaction with the environment. Plant surface absorbs solar energy part of which is used for photosynthesis and most of which must be dissipated. Energy is dissipated by reflection, emission and the dissipation of latent energy by transpiration. Plant surface structure determines the reflective properties of the leaves and their resistance to transpiration. Leaf resistance to transpiration is offcourse largely determined by stomatal activity. However, plant surface structure determines the hydraulics of leaf surface and the boundary layer conditions, which affect the rate of water removal from the leaf surface, upon transpiration.

Text Box: Fig. 10. Sorghum leaf epicuticular wax; left normal (Bm genotype); right low wax (bm genotype)

After the stomata, the secondary site for water loss by transpiration is the cuticle. The hydraulic permeability of the cuticle is determined by the wax embedded in the cuticle matrix as well as by the wax deposited over the cuticle. High cuticular permeability not only affects non-stomatal transpiration pathway but it may also directly affect water loss from guard cells and therefore their water status and stomatal aperture. Fig.10. presents an example of a difference in epicuticular wax load between two sorghum genotypes. The lower wax (bm) genotype had far greater total leaf transpiration than the Bm genotype.

Epicuticular wax is deposited in different forms and structures, most likely as a function of its composition. The environment also affects the density of epicuticular wax. Conditions of water stress, high temperature, and high radiation increase its density. The full genetic potential for wax deposition is therefore best evaluated in plants subjected to stress.

In practical terms, the quantitative effect of wax on transpiration is finite, and for a given plant, the increase in epicuticular wax load beyond a given threshold would not reduce transpiration. Sorghum typically represents relatively high potential epicuticular wax deposition while rice represents species that lack in this respect, as estimated by quantifying epicuticular wax and by rate of cuticular transpiration. Hence, there is a potential for improving drought resistance in rice by genetically increasing epicuticular wax load.

Text Box: Fig. 11. Leaf pubescence in the wild plant Solanum elaeagnifolium (Silverleaf) (right) compared with cotton (left).

Epicuticular wax is deposited in various shapes and forms on the leaf. The shape and angles of the deposits may affect the spectral properties of the leaf. Thus, for example, the glaucous appearance of some wheat genotypes is determined by the structural properties of the wax deposits. Increased glaucousness was found to result in an increase in leaf reflectance of wheat and sorghum within the spectrum range of at least 400 to 700 nm and possibly also at the UV-B. This increase in reflectance may result in a reduction in net radiation and leaf temperatures in glaucous genotypes. The presence of epicuticular wax on sorghum leaves increased leaf water-use efficiency (ratio of CO2 assimilation/transpiration) (#3111).

Leaf pubescence is a common feature in xerophytic plants (Fig. 11) as well as in some crop plants, such as soybean. Generally it increases reflectance from the leaf within the range of 400 to 700 nm and some times up to 900 nm, resulting in lower leaf temperatures under high irradiance. It is sometimes argued that the increased reflectance in the photosynthetically active waveband would reduce photosynthesis under non-stress conditions. Under conditions of stress, there is a trade-off between the effect of pubescence towards the reduced stress load and its possible effect on photosynthesis.

Increased leaf pubescence may increase the leaf boundary-layer resistance by up to 50%. However, it has been argued that this should carry a relatively small effect on water and C0² exchange, as compared with the effect of pubescence on the radiative properties of the leaf.

Leaf colour can affect the thermal properties of the leaf. In both wheat and barley there are ‘yellow leaf’ cultivars, which have about a third less chlorophyll than the ‘normal’ ones. The ‘yellow’ cultivars tend to perform relatively better under drought stress as compared with the normal green. Yellow leaves are more reflective and their temperature is relatively lower than that of green ones. Beyond this difference in reflective properties, the low chlorophyll lines seem to sustain lower injury to the photosystem under conditions of high irradiance and water deficit (#3817).

Non-senescence (delayed senescence or “staygreen”)

Plant senescence is a genetically programmed process, accelerated by environmental stress such as drought, heat, and nitrogen deficiency. The primary expression of leaf senescence is the breakdown of chlorophyll and the subsequent collapse of photosynthesis. Leaf greenness as measured by chlorophyll content or by leaf reflectance properties (using the Minolta chlorophyll meter for example) is becoming an acceptable estimate of senescence (and leaf nitrogen status). Plant breeders recognize what they define as ‘non-senescence’, ‘delayed-senescence’ or ‘stay-green’ plant types which present delayed or slow senescence (#4440) (Fig.12). These genotypes, found in several major crop plants generally sustain leaf greenness and photosynthesis for a longer time and consequently tend to yield more. Since drought stress accelerates senescence, stay-green (SG) genotypes are important in sustaining green leaf area under stress.

SG does not present a uniform expression across different crop plants. In sorghum for example SG can be associated with high stem soluble carbohydrate content and greater resistance to lodging caused by stem ‘charcoal rot’. In sorghum and millet at least, SG genotypes sustain higher RWC under stress as

compared with normal ones. Maintenance of RWC is not necessarily an expected result of delayed chlorophyll loss or delayed leaf protein breakdown. Furthermore, certain SG genotypes of sorghum are expressed better when exposed to drought stress. Hence, the phenotypic selection of SG in sorghum (and perhaps other crops) is more efficient under post-flowering drought stress.

SG is at least partly regulated by endogenous plant hormones, whereas in certain cases an increase in kinetin in leaves promoted SG. In other cases SG was associated with decrease in plant ethylene content.

The expression of SG and plant senescence in general can be markedly influenced by intra-plant interactions which involve assimilate partitioning and endogenous hormonal balance. A simple exercise to obtain a SG phenotype in grain producing crops is by detaching the inflorescence at flowering. Grain set and grain growth generally enhance leaf senescence by enhancing carbohydrate and nitrogen export from leaves into the grain. Very low yielding or partially sterile plants may present some delay in senescence when subjected to drought stress during grain filling.

There are ongoing attempts to achieve genetic transformation of SG trait by either promotion of endogenous kinetin or by antisense suppression of ethylene. QTLs for SG are being identified in several crops (see Biotech Issues) and marker assisted selection for the trait is possible.

Stem Reserve Utilization

The current source of carbon for grain filling is assimilation by the light intercepting viable green leaf area. This source is normally diminishing due to natural senescence and the effect of various stresses. At the same time the demand by the growing kernel is increasing, in addition to the demand posed by maintenance respiration of the live plant biomass. When the demand by the grain sink is not fully supplied by the source of current assimilation, plant reserves can provide the balance.

Small grains and cereal stems store carbohydrates in the form of glucose, fructose, sucrose, fructans or starch. Total storage in cereal plant roots or leaves is relatively small to that in the stem (including leaf sheaths). This storage is commonly analysed as total non-structural carbohydrates (TNC) or water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) (#2722) and it is available for translocation to the grain.

Usage of stem reserves depends on the available storage and the rate and duration of mobilization of storage to the grain. The size of the storage strongly depends on favourable growing conditions before anthesis and genotype. Developmentally, potential stem storage as a sink will also be determined by stem length and stem weight density (stem dry weight per unit stem length). Stem length, as affected by the height genes is important in affecting stem reserve storage, as demonstrated in sorghum (#3561). The Rht₁ and Rht₂ dwarfing genes of wheat were also found to limit reserve

Text Box: Fig. 13. Grain of two wheat cultivars subjected to sever drought stress during grain filling (right). Top: cultivar with superior capacity for stem reserve utilization; bottom: normal cultivar. Note the shriveled grain under stress in the latter.

storage by about one third as a consequence of a reduction in stem length. This may be one of the reasons for the recognized greater drought susceptibility of the dwarf high yielding wheat cultivars.

Stem reserve mobilization or the percentage of stem reserves in total grain mass is affected by sink size, by the environment and by cultivar. It is not surprising that different published estimates of the percentage of grain yield that is accounted by stem reserves range from 9 to 100%.

The demand by the grain yield sink is a primary factor in determining stem reserve mobilization. When degraining reduced sink size, more reserves were stored in the stem, as compared with intact ears. The availability of storage at grain filling does not necessarily assure mobilization. There are cases on record where despite stress conditions the available storage was not utilized. This may be traced to problems in enzymatic conversion of storage to transportable constituents or sometimes inhibition of sink processes. For example, when heat stress occurs starch synthesis in the wheat grain might be inhibited by a thermolabile enzyme (such as soluble starch synthase) and available stem reserves would not be in demand.

The reduction in current assimilation during grain filling, under different stresses, will induce greater stem reserve mobilization to and utilization by the grain. What is important is the reduction in assimilation and not the nature of stress causing the reduction. Thus, stem reserve mobilization is a solid source of carbon for grain filling under any stress, which would inhibit current photosynthesis, including biotic stresses such as late developed leaf diseases. Tolerance to Septoria leaf blotch in wheat is expressed in sustained grain filling under sever epiphytotic. It has been demonstrated that mobilized stem reserve is a major component of Septoria tolerance in wheat (#2659).

The full potential for stem reserve utilization of a cereal cultivar can be experimentally assessed by growing plants under favourable conditions and then detaching all leaf blades and shading the inflorescence at the onset of grain filling. Grain weight per inflorescence in such treated plants as compared with controls provide a reliable estimate. It appears that wheat genotypes differ in their capacity to store stem reserves (Fig.13). Cultivars that have this high capacity must also possess relatively long grain filling period in order to allow sufficient time for reserves to be mobilized into the grain.

A possible “penalty” for high stem reserve utilization capacity is accelerated shoot senescence, due to the export of storage into the grain. Thus, it seems that the two factors cannot be recombined and a breeder must opt for either stem reserve mobilization or delayed senescence trait as mechanisms supporting grain filling under stress.

Photosynthetic systems and water-use efficiency

The C₄ as compared with the more widely common C₃ type photosynthetic metabolism is intimately associated with superior adaptation to set conditions of environmental stress. As such, C₄ plants are more efficient under certain stress conditions as compared with C₃ plants. The C₄ pathway of photosynthesis found in maize, sorghum, pearl millet, and various forage grasses is essentially a pumping mechanism that moves C0₂ from the mesophyll cells and causes high C0₂ concentrations in the biochemically active vascular-bundle sheath cells. This mechanism goes hand in hand with certain anatomical and morphological features of the C₄ plant that are inseparable from the system as a whole. The C0₂-concentrating mechanism results in a high utilization efficiency of low intercellular C0₂concentrations. This is due to the PEP carboxylase enzyme in the C₄ plant, which unlike RuBP carboxylase is insensitive to atmospheric 0₂ concentrations. Atmospheric 0₂ concentrations are strongly inhibitive to C0₂ uptake in C₃ plants where C0₂ is fixed directly by RuBP carboxylase. In C₄ plants C0₂ fixation is carried out in the bundle-sheath cells using C0₂ from decarboxylated C₄ acids in the mesophyll cells. This sequence results in sufficiently high C0₂ concentration maintained at the bundle sheath cell. The efficiency of the C0₂ fixation pathway in the C₄ plant bears significance toward its transpiration-ratio (ratio of C0₂ fixation to transpiration). For a given rate of transpiration, photosynthesis is greater in C₄ than in C₃ plants. This advantage is also translated into a greater plant or crop water-use efficiency. It is not, however, necessarily related to drought resistance. However, under well-water conditions, such as with irrigation, the greater water-use efficiency of the C₄ plant is most likely translated into better economic returns on the cost of irrigation. The normal water-use efficiency (grain yield) of supplemental irrigation in grain sorghum (C₄) is about 20 kg mm^-1 ha^-1, as compared with 10 kg mm^-1 ha^-1 in wheat (C₃).

The C₄-type metabolism results in a greater heat tolerance of photosynthesis where photosynthesis is optimised close to about 35⁰-40⁰C. This is because in the C₃ plant the ratio of oxygenase to carboxylase and the limitation imposed by intracellular C0₂ concentration increase with temperature. In the C₄ plant the oxygenation and the C0₂ limitation are avoided.

The crassulacean-acid metabolism (CAM) has evolved in some desert succulents and cacti. CAM plants open their stomata primarily at night when they assimilate carbon dioxide into oxaloacetate using PEPCase (phosphpoenolpyruvate carboxylase). Daily water use is minimized but growth of these plants is very slow. Few plants such as the ‘ice plant’ (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) are facultative halophyte whereas they respond to plant water deficit by switching from C₃ photosynthesis to CAM.

Stress Adaptation

Cellular and molecular adaptive processes in response to water deficit do not occur until a certain level of water deficit has been reached. Cellular and molecular adaptive responses serve one or more of the following major functions: (a) reduce whole plant growth in order to reduce plant water-use; (b) reduce the rate of cellular water loss and retain cellular hydration; and (c) protect various cellular structures and functions as cells desiccate.

With modern molecular research tools it becomes fairly straightforward to reveal hundreds of genes that are up regulated or down regulated in response to plant tissue water loss. However, research into the function of most of these genes is not as developed. Subsequently the exact function at the whole plant level of the found gene responses to cellular water deficit is not well understood to the extent that they can be used in plant breeding. However, there is slow progress in this area as can be seen in our 'Biotech Issues' files.

The signal transduction

Four main cellular water deficit signal transduction pathways have been identified. Two ABA-dependent and two ABA-independent. The ABA-dependent pathway requires protein synthesis to activate transcription factors of two types: (I) those that bind to DNA regions other than ABA-responsive elements (ABREs) and (II) those that bind to ABREs. One of the two ABA-independent pathways activate a ‘drought response element binding protein’ (DREBP) which bind to the drought responsive element motif leading to a gene induction. The other ABA-independent pathway is not well understood yet.

Over whole there are four classes of drought stress responsive gene expression in terms of the end function:

1. The accumulation of osmotically active compatible solutes.

2. Cellular membrane modification.

3. Expression of antioxidants.

4. Expression of molecular chaperons.

Certain gene expressions are common to water deficit and other stresses such as salinity or cold. Cross-resistance to both stresses (such as water deficit and salinity) at the whole plant level is not necessarily implied although suggested in certain experiments with transgenic plants.

Adaptation and the time scale

Adaptive plant responses to drought stress do not only depend on the level of tissue desiccation but also on its rate (e.g. #3418). It is well established that fast or slow desiccation may have totally different impact on results in terms of adaptation. Very rapid desiccation often exercised with detached leaves in laboratory experiments is totally irrelevant even though statistically significant results can be obtained. Tissue desiccation under natural conditions is slow. DNA microarray studies show that stress responsive genes can be regulated within less than an hour or many hours after the onset of desiccation. The importance of time in this respect is not resolved. It is well known that certain adaptive processes such as osmotic adjustment may require one to three weeks for full expression. The final expression of the full adaptive responses in the whole plant depends on the expression of many genes along time and with desiccation rate.

Osmotic adjustment (OA)

When water deficit develop various solutes accumulate in cells and subsequently tissue osmotic potential is reduced. Tissue osmotic potential can be reduced merely by the concentration of cellular solution due to water loss. This is not OA. OA is derived from the net increase in cellular osmolality caused by the accumulation of solutes such as various ions (mainly potassium), sugars, poly-sugars (e.g. fructan), amino acids (e.g. proline), glycinebetaine, etc.’ Recently constitutive accumulation of natural solutes (e.g. glycinebetaine) and exotic solutes (e.g. mannitol) were engineered and tested for functionality in model plants such as tobacco.

OA occurs when cellular water deficit exceeds a certain threshold, which is not universally determined. Nor has the exact signalling of OA been resolved. OA is a slow process requiring time, and very rapid desiccation in experiments or even in the field may not allow OA. Typically the rate of desiccation should be greater than about 0.1 MPa day^-1. Practically, it should take about 2-3 weeks from fully hydrated state to wilting on order for the

Text Box: Fig. 14. Differential response to drought stress of a high OA cultivar (left) and a low OA cultivar (right) of wheat.

full capacity and impact of OA to be expressed in whole plant. The rate of OA varies greatly among species and cultivars. A minimal rate of OA, which can be considered as effective, is about 0.3 MPa and rates of up to 1.5 to 2.0 MPa were observed in certain cereal cultivars. Some crop plants generally tend to be better at OA than others with cowpea and maize generally having lower rates while indica rice, sorghum and wheat tend to express higher rates. See comparison of measurement methods.

OA is probably one of the most crucial components of adaptation to drought stress. It help maintain cellular turgor at a given leaf water potential and thus delay wilting (Fig.14). OA enables to sustain growth and productivity at lower plant water status. Irrespective of the effect on turgor maintenance, the accumulated solutes protect cellular proteins, various enzymes, cellular organelles, and cellular membranes against desiccation injury. Hence, cell and tissues continue to function despite the progressing desiccation. One consequence of OA at the whole plant level is the continued growth of roots and the extraction of deeper soil moisture. Finally, OA is crucial for the conservation of meristem viability under desiccation towards the recovery of function upon dehydration. OA in different cultivars of wheat, sorghum, various pulses and brassicas has been shown to be well associated with biomass and yield under drought stress

Upon rehydration the various solutes are recycled and metabolised to the extent that the accumulated sugars, for example, are considered as an important energy resource for recovery growth.

Extensive genetic engineering efforts are being made to use the phenomenon of OA in the design of stress resistant plants (e.g. #4635, #5897). Most experiments involve transgenic plants (largely model plants such as tobacco or Arabidopsis thaliana) that were modified to constitutively express the accumulation of osmolytes. Such transgenics that accumulate glycinebetaine, D-ononitol, mannitol, and trehalose gave positive or inconclusive results with respect to stress resistance, and work in this area is developing rapidly.

Cellular membranes

The fluid mosaic model of the cellular membranes (CM) describes the membrane as a bi-layer of phospholipids and glycolipids studded and spanned by proteins partially or fully solvated by the lipid matrix. CM is central site for various cellular functions, especially those associated with membrane bound enzymes and transport of water and solutes. The function and role of the CM under extreme temperature stress is somewhat clearer than with drought stress.

The phospholipids in terms of their quantity and composition are generally considered as the more crucial components of cellular membrane stability under drought stress. The most notable factor in cellular membrane function under desiccation is that plant exposure to slow desiccation or to other stresses, typically extreme temperature stress signal a hardening (“acclimation”) effect that is expressed in increased membrane stability under desiccation stress. While it is not clear how cellular membrane stability under stress is translated into a yield advantage in stress affected crops, such relationship has been indicated in several studies (e.g. #2676, #2985).

Water passage through both the plasma membrane and the tonoplast is crucial to cell life and specific proteins inserted in the membrane largely regulate it. These “water-Channel” proteins, also termed “aquaporins”, respond to various signals and “molecular switches”. These pores are highly selective to water and they play an import role in cellular water relations in response to plant water deficit and osmotic stress. For example, maize root aquaporins were found to be stimulated by water deficit, resulting in improved water transport. The study of aquaporins and their function is now at the forefront of research on cell water relations. Greater understanding of aquaporin role in drought response and adaptation is expected in the near future.

Antioxidation

Oxidative Stress is a general term used to describe a state of damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS, such as free radicals and peroxides, represent a class of molecules that are derived from the metabolism of oxygen. There are many different sources of ROS that can cause oxidative damage to an organism. Most come from endogenous sources as by-products of normal and essential reactions, such as energy generation from mitochondria or the detoxification reactions. Free radicals are unstable because they have unpaired electrons in their molecular structure. This causes them to react almost instantly with any substance in their vicinity. Free radicals destroy cellular membranes, enzymes and DNA.

Antioxidants are active substances naturally occurring in all organisms which detoxify free radicals. These are for example superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione reductase or ascorbate peroxidase. SOD, for example, converts the O₂º to H₂0₂ and Catalase converts H₂0₂to molecular oxygen (O₂).

Drought, as well as other stresses cause oxidative stress in plants and antioxidant abundance and activity is important for the protection of metabolism under stress. When various studies are reviewed it is unclear whether the genetic enhancement of antioxidant production in plants beyond the natural level is indeed required to alleviate drought stress at the whole plant level and whether the naturally occurring active antioxidants are not sufficient to protect the plant. It has been shown that drought induced oxidative stress related genes and that this was associated with increased levels of various antioxidants in plants. The most important information in this respect is coming from the developing work with transgenic plants, which over express antioxidant production. When these studies are taken as a whole, no clear conclusions can be made yet with respect to the advantage in the overproduction of antioxidants to improve plant production under drought stress. More information is available on this site under “The Stresses”.

“Stress proteins or Chaperons”

Text Box: Fig. 15. Rice transgenic plants over expressing the HVA1 barley embryo LEA protein and subjected to drought stress. The middle pot is the ‘wild type’ (control) plant. These transgenics were developed by Prof. R. Wu and associates at Cornell University. The photograph was taken from a study by Dr.’s Jingxian Zhang and H.T. Nguyen at Texas Tech University.

Stress proteins is a large group of different proteins induced by different environmental and biotic stress in various organisms ranging from prokaryotes to man.

A group of relatively small molecular weight proteins is developmentally regulated in growing seed such as that of barley. Their accumulation during embryo development has a role in protecting the embryo as the seed matures and desiccates during maturation (typically to about 10% water content). These are defined as ‘late embryogenesis abundant’ (LEA) proteins. Further research found that LEA proteins consist of a family, including several similar

proteins such as “dehydrins”. These are not limited to seed embryo and they can be induced by drought stress in various plant tissues. Some are ABA responsive while others are not. Additional information especially on LEA protein and desiccation tolerance in seed is available on line.

Work with transgenic plants indicated that the LEA family of stress protein might have a role in drought and osmotic stress resistance. Their exact function is not clear but it may involve osmotic adjustment or protection of cellular membranes or organelles during desiccation. They may also act as molecular chaperons and in that respect they are very similar to low molecular weight heat shock proteins (HSP) (#3741). In this role they may conserve protein structure during stress. The LEA family of proteins may carry an important potential for enhancing stress resistance (Fig.15).

ABA (abscisic acid) accumulation and its consequences

ABA accumulates in various plant parts subjected to desiccation. ABA responsive genes are often assumed to be stress adaptive. The rational is that if plants under stress consistently respond by producing ABA in leaves and root, then ABA must be important for coping with stress. The most prominent effect of ABA accumulation in the plant is stomatal closure and reduced transpiration. However, a review of the literature indicates that ABA has numerous and critical negative effects on plants especially when crop productivity is considered (Table 1)

Table 1. Effects of ABA on plant processes involved with growth and reproduction
Growth
General growth	Inhibition
Cell division	Decrease
Cell expansion	Decrease
Leaf initiation	Inhibition
Germination	Decrease
Root growth	Increase
Tillering	Decrease
Reproduction
Flowering (annuals)	Advance
Flower induction	Inhibition
Flower abscission	Increase
Pollen viability	Decrease
Seed set	Decrease

Text Box: Fig.16. Wheat seedlings grown in vermiculite and severely desiccated after which they were irrigated. The seedling on the right received 0.1 µmol of ABA in the irrigation water before the onset of stress. Control seedlings on the left.

Genotypes of wheat that were selected for a high capacity for ABA accumulation under drought stress were found to be no better or even worse than the normal ones in terms of function and yield under drought stress. Selection for low leaf ABA content in maize was correlated with reduced yield under conditions of limited water supply (#5393).

On the other hand ABA may have an important role in regulating an orderly shutdown of plant functions towards a state of dormancy, as the case is for the maturing seed. Dormancy is essential for surviving extreme plant desiccation. ABA mediated dormancy is crucial for attaining freezing tolerance, which involves cellular desiccation. The value of plant survival under sever desiccation depends on the agricultural ecosystem concerned. It can be important in subsistence agricultural where plant recovery from sever drought stress can provide some growth and production (Fig.16). Plant survival is of lesser consequence to commercial crop production as practiced in developed countries. Even the ability of seedling survival and recovery after a prolonged drought in commercial wheat production does not carry great impact when re-seeding the crop is a technically and an economically viable option. A commercial crop based on recovered seedlings is likely to be inferior to that grown from newly planted seed. The present knowledge on ABA and it role in plant adaptation to drought stress does not allow yet to formulate a breeding strategy with respect to ABA.

Variability of the field environment

Any book on field experimentation deals extensively with the issue of spatial variability in the field, which is a major problem requiring detailed statistical design and analysis of field experiments. The field is variable in terms of topography and soil characteristics. Soil characteristics vary in all dimensions. This variability is amplified when the water regime is concerned and especially when water is lacking. Fig.17 demonstrates field variability for soil moisture seen in a sorghum breeding nursery subjected to drought stress. Plots that are generally above the drawn line are situated on wetter soil and therefore appear more colour saturated (having

Text Box: Fig. 17. Aerial photograph of a sorghum breeding nursery under dryland conditions in a farmer field (see text).

higher leaf water status) as compared with more desiccated plots below the line.

Whichever methods and precautions are deployed to handle field variability as a generator of experimental error, these become especially critical in experiments involving water deficit. While suitable field topography (flat with a slight homogenous slope) can be identified, it is extremely difficult to estimate soil variability at the site with respect to its water characteristics, just by using soil tests. It is therefore highly recommended to perform a field homogeneity test by growing a homogenous commercial crop in the candidate field before choosing it for screening work. The crop should be water stressed and then observed for variability in plant development. Photogrammetric methods can also be applied for this purpose.

While the field in the target stress environment is the primary target of the breeding program, paradoxically, it is generally inappropriate for selection work. Besides the amplified spatial variability when water is limited, stress is also variable from year to year. The water regime can be too sever in one year, causing complete loss of breeding materials on one hand or too favourable to constitute any stress pressure in another year. Drought stress in different seasons can also occur in different growth stages. Stress in the target field environment is therefore inconsistent, causing reduced efficiency in the overall selection program. It may be argued that this variability is an inherent problem to be addressed in breeding. While this may be true, selection becomes very ineffective if it is practice under such a variable protocol. For example, if drought resistance is to be improved at two different growth stages, it must be logically addressed separately for each different stage, followed by recombination. It follows therefore that the field-screening environment must be managed for stress intensity and timing to a level that can result in a consistent selection pressure from one cycle to the next. This is roughly analogous to the use of controlled disease infection in the selection for disease resistance.

Managing the selection stress environment

Text Box: Fig. 19. Forage sorghum breeding materials (tall plants) grown on a line-source irrigation system. Source is indicated (arrow) and growth of plants is reduces perpendicular to the source.

The ideal field selection site for drought resistance would be in the desert (<100 mm annual rainfall), where almost any crop water regime can be designed by irrigation. While this may not always be possible it is the conceptual basis of the managed stress environment. It follows that most breeding programs that plan to have a component of selection for drought resistance must develop a special selection site where stress can be managed to a reasonable extent. Alternatively, some natural drought stress conditions may be quite repeatable from year to year or very easy to manage by irrigation. This is the case for summer crops grown exclusively on stored soil moisture from winter precipitations. This stress scenario is found for example in the Mediterranean and the “rabi” season in parts of India where the crop season's rainfall is insignificant.

When a managed field site is impossible to achieve, the next option is the ‘rainout shelter’. This is a constructed shelter over a given field area which can eliminate any rainfall on the sheltered area. While being sheltered from rainfall plants must still receive reasonable light. Two approached are being used.

1. The shelter is constructed from a mobile roof that is automatically or manually moved over the plot when rain occurs and moves away from the plot after the rain stop. An automatic system with all the associated installations, motor and sensors can be expensive. Simpler lightweight systems can be constructed from light materials so that can be pushed manually when rains are coming. Such a system as constructed at ICRISAT is displayed in Fig.18. The main limitation for a lightweight system is that it cannot withstand very strong winds.

2. A light permanent construction made of transparent roof with sidewalls made of polyethylene curtains that can be rolled up. When rainfall is expected the curtains are manually rolled down for the duration after which they are rolled up to achieve full ventilation. Non-stress control (irrigated) plots are also situated under the shelter.

Rainout shelters are practically possible with only a small field area, typically less than a 1000 m². Consequently they are suitable for testing parental or advanced generation materials rather than large breeding populations.

Where rainfall is limited in the natural field selection environment, such as dry season in the tropics or the summer season in the Mediterranean, managed stress environments can be designed by irrigation control. Options range from having a stress and non-stress environments side by side to the line-source irrigation system (Fig.19). This system is based on the fact that any sprinkler irrigation system spreads water in a gradient where the maximum amount is discharged at the source with a diminishing amount away from the source. Hence the amount of water available to the plants decreases perpendicular to the sprinkler irrigation line. Breeding materials can be planted in small plots perpendicular to the line and be subjected to an increasing drought stress perpendicular to the line.

Observation on plant response along a water supply gradient within each genotype can be very effective for revealing resistant materials. The ‘Mixed-procedure’ application (SAS) can perform the statistical analysis of data from a line-source irrigation system, if needed.

Methods can vary from purely physiological to indirect assessments that are useful only for selection purposes. The physiological methods were reviewed in previous pages. Here only methods for applied selection work are indicated.

Stress Symptoms

When plants reduce their water status and loose turgor under stress they display various and very distinct symptoms. Symptoms progress in proportion of plant water deficit and they can be visually scored for and used in selection. The most notable symptom is leaf wilting. Leaf Rolling is an expression of wilting in the cereals and it is being widely used in field selection work. It is visually scored (typically on a 0 to 5 scale) and used in selection for drought resistance in various crops such as rice, wheat, barley and sorghum. Other leaf stress symptoms include leaf desiccation (“firing”), leaf tip “burning”, leaf “drooping” and leaf drop. General scores of plot appearance under stress is also used by experienced breeders who are well acquainted with the various responses of their crop to drought stress.

Stress symptoms are also expressed in flowering time if stress occurs before normal flowering time. A delay in inflorescence appearance or exertion is typical of rice or sorghum. An advance in flowering is seen in wheat. Assessing the rate of delay or advance requires a comparison between stress and non-stress plots.

Canopy Temperature

Selection methods were developed and applied to plant breeding following principles and techniques used in Remote Sensing in Agriculture. Most methods are based on the spectral response of leaves (Fig.23) and its modification with plant response to the environment.

Text Box: Fig. 23. The spectral response of typical leaves (from http://ltpwww.gsfc.nasa.gov/ISSSR-95/monitori.htm).

From previous pages discussions it is indicated that canopy temperature is a function of transpirational cooling. Canopy temperature differences among genotypes under non-stress conditions are small and they are mainly a function of canopy architecture differences. As water deficit develops, canopy temperature differences among genotypes increase and plant water status becomes the main source of this variation. Canopy temperature was used to develop a crop water stress index as a tool for crop management. Canopy temperature measured under drought stress has also been developed into a rapid field screening method for the maintenance of plant water status under drought stress. Relatively lower canopy temperatures under stress indicate a relatively better plant water status and canopy temperatures were generally found to be negatively correlated with yield under stress.

Canopy temperature can be measured remotely by the infrared thermometer. When pointed at the canopy the instrument measures long wave infrared radiation emitted from the target it views. This radiation is proportional to the target body temperature. The first consideration in using the IR thermometer with vegetation is having a legitimate target area which does not consist of anything besides the leaf canopy, such as woody stems or soil surface. Secondly, since work involves the comparative canopy temperature of many genotypes and since that can change with ambient conditions, work must be done under fairly stable atmospheric conditions. This can be achieved by working close to solar noon, under non-windy conditions and perfectly clear skies. Finally, the thermometer is sensitive to spectral reflectance from the canopy, so that canopies should not be viewed with the sun in front. Canopies made of large leaves with open area between leaves, such as the case is with sorghum, maize or sunflower are not appropriate for this method.

Infrared Photography

Text Box: Fig. 24. An aerial infrared color photograph of a droughted sorghum nursery; see text.

The spectral reflection from leaves spans over the visible range (400-700 nm) and beyond. Leaves reflect in the near infrared (800-900 nm) (Fig.23) and this reflectance is affected by mesophyll cell turgor. When turgor is lost and cells reduce their volume, near infrared reflectance decreases. This reflectance can be recorded on infrared sensitive film. Images with low near infrared reflectance appear less color saturated as compared with those that reflect more.

Therefore, low-altitude aerial infrared photography of a drought stressed nursery can be used to differentiate between nursery entries in their water status. The overflight must be done around solar noon under clear and calm conditions and when drought stress is well developed. Infrared aerial photography providers can supply the photograph on a special Kodak infrared transparency film in a 22x22 cm size. Individual entries can be well recognize under a magnifying glass and scored for their color saturation. Alternatively the image can by analyzed by densitometrical methods which would provide the color densities in numerical values.

An example is given (Fig.24) of an enlarged section of a larger aerial infrared color photograph of a drought stressed sorghum nursery. The relatively drought stressed lines appear less color saturated while the more deep red colored rows are less stressed.

Selection for Drought Resistance by Assessing Plant Function

As discussed previously the comparative assessment of plant function in different genotypes under drought stress must be normalized for plant water status. Else, differences in function among genotypes can be ascribed to differences in water status and not necessarily to real difference in function at a given plant stress. This is a difficult requirement in selection work and especially under field conditions.

An effective approach for normalizing measurements of function against plant water status is to measure plant water status at the time of function measurement. Then regress function on water status across all genotypes. Genotypes that deviate positively from the regression are resistant while those that deviate negatively are susceptible in terms of the specific function. Off course, these measurements cannot be performed on large breeding populations and they may be useful for screening potential parents for crosses or very advance lines.

Two examples of the more popular selection methods for function are given here, cell membrane stability (CMS) and chlorophyll fluorescence.

Cell Membrane Stability (CMS)

This method is based on the fact that stress cause injury to cellular membranes. This injury is expressed in leakage of various cellular solutes, including electrolytes. Electrolyte leakage can be easily measured by the electro conductivity of the medium in which the affected leaf sample is placed. The method is being used for assessing thermotolerance in heated leaf samples. Basically the method compares leakage from stress-affected with leakage from control samples, calculating the relative injury or stability (the inverse of injury).

When CMS is used as a drought resistance selection index it is estimated in leaves subjected to advanced stress, typical to RWC of around 60-70%. Samples are taken from stressed and non-stressed (control) leaves. Samples are also taken for estimating RWC as a measure of water status. The first case of such a study is in rice where QTLs for CMS under drought stress were identified (#4793).

Chlorophyll Fluorescence

The light harvesting system of photosystem II absorbs light reaching the leaf. This light energy can be used to drive photochemistry providing the chemical energy (in the form of ATP and NADPH) for CO₂ fixation in the Calvin cycle. PSII extracts electrons from water releasing oxygen in the process. The excessive light energy that is not used in photochemistry (for different reasons, including photosystem dysfunction due to stress) can be dissipated as heat or re-emitted as fluorescence. This fluorescence is being widely used in plant science to probe the activity and performance of the photosystem under a variety of stress conditions. In some case such as wheat and maize quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for chlorophyll fluorescence signals under given set of conditions were mapped and can be used in MAS.

A host of instruments and imaging systems were developed for analyzing chlorophyll fluorescence. There are different levels of analysis, depending on the purpose of the study. A unique and detailed analytical probe defines as the JIP test has been developed by Prof. Strasser in Geneva. It allows a very comprehensive dissection and interpretation of the fluorescence phenomenon. This is mainly a research rather than a selection tool. Chlorophyll fluorescence is even entering the domain of remote sensing where vegetation function might be monitored from aerial platforms in the near future.

However, fast portable and simple instruments are needed for selection work and these are available from various commercial suppliers (see Web Resources page). It must be realized however that the measurement and interpretation of chlorophyll fluorescence signal, even with simple instrumentation require a complete understanding (see also Using CF analysis) of the phenomenon, also referred to as the “Kautsky effect”.

The Polyethylene Glycol Root Medium

Text Box: Fig. 25. Wheat plants grown for 10 d in nutrient solution with PEG8000 (-4.1Mpa) (right) as compared with nutrient solution controls (left).

It is practically impossible to control plant water status of different genotypes under drought stress for reasons discussed under Impact. The only method that can provide some control over root nedium water status is the use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 8000 in the root medium. PEG is an osmoticum providing given water potential for a given concentration in aqueous solution. When plants are grown in a hydroponics system with roots immersed in PEG, they must reduce their water potential in order to take up water. This however does not necessarily imply that different genotypes will reach the same leaf water status when all are exposed to the same PEG concentration in the root medium. Difference in leaf area between genotypes is one simple example that might drive differences in leaf water status. Still, when morphological variations among genotypes are slight, such as in seedlings, similar leaf water status might be expressed in all.

The problem with PEG is that roots may take it up and slowly poison the plant. While PEG of large molecular weight (e.g. 8000) is less of a problem in this respect, still many plant species are not quite suitable for the method, unless treated in a special protocol.

A more detailed discussion of the method and possible protocols are available on this site.

Managing Drought Stress by Supplemental Irrigation

General Irrigation Links